Debate motions from 2025

A man enters a burning building on the verge of collapse. He sees a 25 year old mother and her only child, a newborn baby. Both are strangers to him. He can certainly rescue either the mother or her baby, but not both.

In workplace harassment cases, strict liability holds employers accountable for harassment between employees, regardless of what steps were taken to prevent or address the harassment, while negligence requires proving the employer failed to take reasonable steps.

A "Tournament of Judges" model is where judges compete for promotion to higher courts. This is based on objective metrics such as publication rates, citations by other courts and judges, speed of dispositions, and successful appeal rates.

Special Economic Zones (SEZs) are geographically designated areas within a country that operate under reduced economic regulations. These include tax incentives, lower tariff rates and special customs procedures.

Men's Behaviour Change Programs are government-run initiatives designed to combat gendered violence. Men in these programs meet regularly with a trained facilitator or counsellor in a group setting. The sessions focus on addressing issues such as unresolved childhood trauma, emotional regulation, substance abuse and the impact of past experiences on present behaviour. Men can attend voluntarily, or men convicted of an offence can be compelled to attend by court order.

Build-to-Rent (BTR) refers to residential developments that are built primarily to be rented out, rather than sold to individual buyers. Typically, BTR properties are owned and managed by a single institutional landlord, such as a property fund, superannuation fund, or real estate investment trust.

In Singapore, Housing & Development Board (HDB) units are public housing units built and managed by the government. Under this scheme, residents purchase the lease, not the land. After 99 years, the unit reverts to the state.

Religious Councils are councils of religious leaders from the dominant faith in a country which advise governments on whether their laws comply with religious scripture before they are passed. Their advice is non-binding.

The Agniveer scheme, launched by the Indian government, is a short-term military recruitment program for youth aged 17.5 to 21. Recruits serve in the armed forces for four years, after which 25% are selected on merit for long- term service. The remaining receive a one-time severance package but no pension or permanent benefits.

MERCOSUR is a trade bloc in South America including Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay.

PGA Tour is a non-profit organisation that runs 'The PGA Tour', its flagship series of North American Golf Tournaments. It is largely player run, with roughly half of its board being current players, advised by a player-elected Player Advisory Council (PAC). Virtual golf arenas are large indoor entertainment centres. In Phase 1, players tee-off towards a virtual golf simulator, and play through the hole virtually until reaching the green. They then complete the hole on an in-arena putting green.

In New Zealand, University Entrance (UE) is the minimum grade required for admission to university and does not change year on year. UE allows students entry into any university course and there is no limit on the amount of spaces offered. Entrance into specialised courses with limited spaces (e.g. medicine, law, engineering majors) is determined by results in your first year at university (e.g. first-year Health Sciences papers for entry into Medicine). If you do not get into the specialised course you apply for, the first-year papers will be cross-credited to another relevant degree (e.g. Bachelor of Health Sciences).

Universities receiving National Institutes of Health (NIH) research grants typically receive approximately 50% of direct research costs as additional funding to cover overhead expenses such as administration and utilities.

For the purpose of this debate, party drugs are cocaine, ecstasy (MDMA), ketamine, LSD and GHB.

New Media outlets are characterised by their relatively small size and focus on online distribution (e.g. podcasting, social media commentating and blog- style posting). Examples include Breitbart, Rebel News, Turning Point USA, Vox, Hasan Piker, The Daily Aus, etc. Traditional Media refers to established mastheads, which are generally larger in size and tend to distribute in a variety of mediums (e.g. in print, online and on social media). Examples include The New York Times, The Australian Financial Review, Fox News, Al Jazeera, the BBC, Chosun Ilbo, etc.

The Price Limit Rule is a stock market regulation in China that restricts the daily price movement of individual stocks within a fixed percentage range. When a stock reaches the upper limit or lower limit, further trading at a higher or lower price is not allowed for the rest of the trading day.

Bougainville is a semi-autonomous region of Papua New Guinea. The Panguna Copper mine was opened in 1972 by Bougainville Copper Limited (BCL). Local concerns about the mine revived a secessionist movement, leading to the mine's sabotage in 1989 and a civil war that killed 20,000 people. A 2001 peace deal granted autonomy and promised a referendum, which in 2019 saw 98% vote for independence. The mine remains uncontained, with an estimated $80 billion in copper and gold. The Autonomous Bougainville Government now owns 72% of BCL, and is considering reopening the mine as part of its 2027 independence plan.

For the purposes of this debate, "Franchise Loyalty" refers to players prioritizing to stay in the same team for an extended period of time.

In the USA, nationwide injunctions are court orders that bind the federal government, even in its relations with non-parties in a lawsuit, to stop enforcing a law or regulation. It stops the government from acting in a particular way nationwide, regardless of the specific geographic location of the lawsuit.

There are two systems for corporate sponsorship of research in universities. In a university-governance system, the university manages the commercialization process, with companies providing large-scale grants and partnering directly with the institution, which then respectively distributes funding to researchers. In contrast, in a researcher-governance system, companies fund researchers directly through giving grants to specific research or hiring and compensating faculty while they continue to operate within the university.

Habeas corpus proceedings refers to proceedings where a court examines the legality of someone's detention. Primarily, a court order compels the custodian of a detained person to bring them before the court to determine if the detention is lawful.

Litigation finance refers to the practice of outside investors funding legal claims in exchange for a share of the proceeds if the case is successful. These funders cover legal costs such as attorney fees, expert witnesses, discovery, etc. Typical funders include hedge funds, private equity firms, and specialized litigation finance companies (e.g., Burford Capital, Omni Bridgeway).

In the current NBA format, the NBA is structured into two conferences — the Eastern Conference (e.g. Boston Celtics, Philadelphia 76ers, New York Knicks, etc.) and the Western Conference (e.g. Los Angeles Lakers, Golden State Warriors, San Antonio Spurs, etc.) — with 15 teams in each, primarily organized based on geographic location. In the regular season, teams play 82 games where they face teams from the other conference two times and teams from the same conference three or four times. At the end of the season, teams are seeded based on wins in relation to teams within their respective conference. The top teams then proceed to the play-offs. In the current playoff system, teams are seeded within their respective conferences based on regular season performance with the top 6 in each conference qualifying for the playoffs and the 7th-10th teams in each conference entering the Play-In Tournament where teams compete in a single elimination format to determine the lowest playoff seeds at each side of the bracket. In the current format, teams from the East and West can only face each other in the NBA Finals of the play-offs. In a single-league playoff system, the teams are seeded regardless of conference affiliation. Under this model, teams are seeded 1 through 16 based on the total number of wins (e.g., 1 vs. 16, 2 vs. 15, etc.) with the top 12 teams across the league qualifying for the playoffs, and the 13th-20th teams competing in the Play-In tournament. This format abandons the East West conference structure in the play-offs.

Several boxing associations—such as the WBA, WBC, and WBO—rank fighters and award titles. In boxing, fighters sign with a promoter who helps organize fights for them. Promoters are prohibited from creating their own rankings or titles. The industry includes many promotional companies, such as Golden Boy, Mayweather Promotions, Top Rank, and etc. Organizing fights between fighters usually involves negotiations among different promoters.

The Baloch movement is a nationalist movement seeking greater autonomy and independence for Balochistan, mainly in Pakistan. It stems from grievances over political marginalization, military repression, and control of natural resources. It is split between groups like the Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) and Balochistan Liberation Front (BLF), which use violence to seek independence, and parties like the BNP (Balochistan National Party), which pursue autonomy through elections and legal means. The BLA has historically resorted to destroying infrastructure, targeting security personnel, and sabotaging foreign investments. Most recently, in March 2025, they hijacked a passenger train, killed five officers, and injured many others.

After the Civil War ended in 2009, the Sri Lankan Military acquired vast swathes of land owned by the native minority Tamil population (around 30,000 acres) in the Northern and Eastern Provinces of Sri Lanka. Anura Dissanayake, the newly elected President of Sri Lanka promised to return back land to the Tamils in his electoral campaign. Military bases like Palaly and Kankesanthurai are located in Jaffna, while Trincomalee and Sampur also host major military installations and are declared high-security zones.

The sequencing-first model of democratization refers to an approach where liberal-democratic institutions are developed by elites who had significant influence during the colonial era before electoral competition is introduced in nascent political systems. In contrast, the elections-first model prioritizes the rapid introduction of multi-party elections even if the necessary institutions to support fair and effective governance are underdeveloped.

Genetic engineering is the process of directly manipulating an organism's genetic material (DNA) to alter its traits. This involves introducing, removing, or modifying specific genes to achieve a desired outcome.

Lab-grown meat companies refer to firms that produce animal meat by cultivating animal cells in bioreactors. Examples include Upside Foods, Mosa Meat, etc. On the other hand, whole-food plant-based (WFPB) systems focus on natural, minimally processed plant foods like vegetables, legumes, grains, nuts, and seeds.

Enjo kōsai is a type of transactional relationship where older men give money and/or luxury gifts to attractive young women in exchange for sexual favors in Japan. While Enjo kōsai is not explicitly illegal, Japanese laws prohibit paying a person under 18 for obscene acts and juvenile delinquency.

In March 2025, the European Union intensified its antitrust actions against major U.S. tech giants (eg. Apple, Meta, etc.) for alleged violations of the Digital Markets Act. The DMA prohibits self-preferencing and requires interoperability. The companies face fines of up to 10% of their global revenue (20% for repeated violations) along with multiple lawsuits.

The industrial park model for capital-only investments typically refers to a state-coordinated strategy where infrastructure, land, and basic utilities are concentrated within a designated industrial complex - often developed with government or public financing.

Subtle social conflicts refer to non-physical, emotionally ambiguous interactions that involve exclusion, manipulation, or social imbalance rather than overt aggression. Some examples of such conflict include exclusion-based play, mocking/teasing masked as jokes, ignoring one child inside a group, etc.

South Africa's latest Expropriation Bill introduces cases where private land can be expropriated by the government without compensation, aiming to address land reform. In response, President Donald Trump signed an executive order to halt all future aid to South Africa until a complete investigation on the issue is completed.

Medicalization is the process of defining a phenomenon through medical language in order to categorize it as one that can be treated by medical services (eg. gender affirming services).

In early 2025, President Donald Trump proposed a plan to relocate Palestinians from the Gaza Strip to Egypt, threatening it with scaling back financial assistance from the USA if it refuses to accept the refugees. Egypt has remained cautious about accepting, while continuing to provide humanitarian aid.

The Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF), the main force in Tigray's war against Ethiopia's federal government (2020–2022), signed the Pretoria Agreement in 2022 to end the conflict. At the time, it had a centralized leadership with limited internal power-sharing. After the agreement, it began to fragment with new parties and factions (e.g., Tigray Independence Party, Salsay Weyane Tigray, etc.) emerging in Tigray, some calling for Tigrayan independence and others pushing for different styles of governance.

As of March 20, 2025, Grab Holdings Ltd., a leading Southeast Asian ride- hailing and delivery company headquartered in Singapore, is actively pursuing the acquisition of Indonesian tech conglomerate GoTo Group, which is a dominant player in Indonesia's digital economy, providing services such as ride-hailing and e-commerce.

The Government Pension Investment Fund (GPIF) is Japan's primary public pension fund and the largest in the world, managing over ¥220 trillion (approximately USD $1.5 trillion). As of recent years, roughly 50% of GPIF's portfolio is invested in foreign assets—split evenly between foreign equities and foreign bonds. These include major holdings primarily in the U.S. stock indexes (such as the S&P 500) and debt instruments like the U.S. Treasury securities.

The Mekong Delta—which produces over half of Vietnam's rice and a significant share of its aquaculture exports—has historically been highly fragmented, with most farms averaging less than 0.5 hectares. A significant proportion of land holdings are held by smallholder households from ethnic minority communities, such as the Khmer and Hoa people, who occupy land without proper documentation and rely on informal recognition by local authorities or customary claims. Typically, these households cultivate various crops (e.g., rice, corn, tapioca, etc.) on their land. The region is experiencing rapid climate change and natural calamities. Recently, the Vietnamese government started pursuing state-directed agrarian restructuring, promoting the consolidation of small, scattered plots into larger farms through state-led land auctions and planned rural relocation programs.

The traditional ontological belief in Christianity is predicated by a hierarchical theory of structure, where authority flowed from the top down, and laws—both moral and civil—were seen as expressions of this divinely ordained structure, with the church playing a central role in interpreting God's will and enforcing moral order. In contrast, the Two-Kingdoms doctrine holds that there is a separation between the divine and the earthly. In this view, all people and institutions in the earthly realm are equal in nature and authority. Law in the earthly kingdom is judged by human reason and justice rather than divine hierarchy, and no person or institution mediates another's relationship with God.

For the purpose of this debate, pilgrimages are physical journeys to sacred religious sites. Examples include the Hajj to Mecca in Islam, the Camino de Santiago in Christianity, and the Kumbh Mela in Hinduism.

Sectarian minorities are groups that differ from the dominant sect of a religion in beliefs, practices, or identity. These typically include religious communities such as Shia Muslims in Sunni-majority countries, or other smaller Islamic sects (e.g., Ismailis, Ahmadis, and etc.).

Selective ethnic recruitment refers to colonial-era policies in which certain ethnic groups were deliberately favored for military service based on stereotypical assumptions about their inherent bravery or martial prowess, while other groups were excluded. Popular examples include the British prioritising the Sikhs and the Gurkhas while deprioritising the Bengalis in India, Northerners (e.g., Hausa-Fulani) being prioritised heavily over southern groups in Nigeria, etc.

Dictatorships often employ the divide-and-rule strategy by fragmenting the military's power to ensure that no single military group has the power to overthrow them. Some popular examples include Saddam Hussein creating the Republican Guard and the Special Republican Guard separate from the main military in Iraq, Muammar Gaddafi weakening the regular army and creating loyalist militias in Libya, etc.

Holistic educational philosophies emphasise making people, rather than teaching people. This emphasises moral instruction (e.g., politeness, de- emphasis on individuality in favour of group harmony) and community participation/service (e.g., cleaning and running events), alongside traditional academics.

Approximately 65% of Victorians support entering into a treaty with Victoria's Indigenous People. The Victorian government is currently involved in negotiations with the Treaty Authority (a special Statutory Authority) which are expected to result in a treaty within the next 2-3 years.

Josh Frydenberg is a moderate Liberal politician. He supported the Voice to Parliament and belonged to the centre-right faction of the Liberal party.

Both major Australian political parties have proposed competing measures to assist first-home buyers. Labor have proposed the 'Help to Buy' scheme where the federal government would contribute up to 40% of the purchase price of a property, reducing the deposit and interest payments, in return for a 40% stake in the property. Homeowners could pay the government back over time or when they sell the property. The Coalition have proposed the 'Super for Housing' scheme where buyers can access up to $50k from their superannuation to contribute to a deposit on a house. Both schemes have eligibility requirements and other conditions.

Most criminal prosecutions are brought by the state. A private prosecution is a criminal case which is brought by an individual, a business or an organisation which considers itself to have been the victim of a crime. Private prosecutions have to comply with guidelines, and are still heard before a state appointed judge or jury.

A communication is unsolicited when it was not reasonably sought or expected. Examples include junk mail, spam, public social media posts and comments or unexpected private communications to strangers (email, direct message, letter, etc). This does not include any communications with friends or family, nor face-to-face interactions.

Use rights generally provide an exclusive right to fish a particular place at a particular time, to certain groups of fishers (companies, individuals or communities).

Lava Jato was a 2014 Brazilian anti-corruption probe. While it uncovered widespread misconduct among top government officials and state-owned enterprise executives, the probe was later marred by allegations of political bias. Lava Jato has since been 'reversed'. The task force was disbanded in 2021 before their work had concluded, several fines have been voided, and many of those imprisoned have been released early.

A Locally Undesirable Land Use (LULU) is a type of land use that creates externality costs on those living in close proximity (bad smells, poor aesthetics, health hazards etc.) Examples of LULUs include prisons, garbage dumps, power plants and homeless shelters. In a tender process, each local community is required to submit a bid for an amount of compensation for which they would accept the LULU near them. The community that submits the lowest bid, is paid their requested compensation and the LULU is placed near them.

Hedonic happiness is the belief that happiness comes from pleasure and self- indulgence, following current desires and maximising immediate enjoyment. Eudaimonic happiness is the belief that happiness comes from the pursuit of goals and having a clear purpose. 

Open source software is released under a license allowing anybody to freely examine, alter, and distribute the software and its source code.

Many countries currently target an inflation rate of 2%.

"This isn't dogma, just my thought: I like to think of hell as empty. I hope it is." - Pope Francis

Kiwistan and Ozlandia are neighbouring countries. Ozlandia is significantly larger and richer than Kiwistan, and Kiwistan relies assymetrically on trade with Ozlandia. However, Kiwistan has a stronger military than Ozlandia. Amid a diplomatic breakdown, Ozlandia has cut off trade with Kiwistan and imposed harsh sanctions. Attempts at negotiations have failed.

Shortly after the commencement of Donald Trump's second term, the Trump Administration began a campaign to significantly reduce the size of the Federal Civil Service. This entailed efforts to fire civil servants, and convince them to resign, such as: offering redundancy payments, changing job requirements, transferring civil servants, and applying political pressure to senior civil servants.

In 1995, the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform, chaired by Congresswoman Barbara Jordan, recommended a comprehensive overhaul of immigration policy that included reducing legal immigration from approximately 800,000 to 550,000 annually, eliminating visa preferences for adult children and siblings of U.S. citizens, prioritising skills-based immigration and nuclear family reunification, and strengthening border enforcement and employer sanctions. While the Clinton Administration implemented some of the Commission's enforcement-related recommendations, it declined to adopt proposals to reduce legal immigration levels or restructure family-based immigration categories

The Hanson Proposal would provide parents with a portion of all tax revenue paid by their children. It would also provide them with tax credits each year until their child turns 18. This would be revenue neutral, funded by the abolition of aged pensions.

New psychoactive substances (NPS) are synthetic drugs designed to mimic the effects of illegal substances, with altered chemical structures to evade drug laws. New versions of these drugs are continuously being produced by clandestine drug laboratories and released into the public, predominantly for recreational use. There are two approaches to prohibiting these drugs. Individual listing, which is traditionally used in drug listing, only prohibits drugs explicitly named by legislation. Analogue listing pre-emptively prohibits drugs that are similar to existing illegal substances, either based on chemical composition or effects of consumption.

The Chagos Islands are a group of more than 60 islands in the middle of the Indian Ocean about 500 kilometres south of The Maldives. When Britain granted Mauritius independence in 1965, it retained the Chagos Islands for itself as the British Indian Ocean Territory. The native population of the Islands were expelled and an American military base was constructed on the largest island Diego Garcia. Keir Starmer has promised to return the islands to Mauritius.

Eitan is an average teenager who has an intense crush to this girl since childhood. Due to his inaction and fear his long time crush is now dating someone else. Despite all this, Eitan remains a close friend , and does not believe that the current partner is good enough. Eitan has a significant amount of influence over his crush and their opinions. Eitan believes she can do better.

Love potions refer to magical substances that, when consumed, induce strong romantic or affectionate feelings toward a specific person. These potions do not override a person's free will, motor control, or ability to make decisions. They temporarily heighten emotional attachment or infatuation, similar to the early stages of romantic attraction. Their use is legal and publicly accessible. The effects are not permanent, but the potion may be used repeatedly. While the feelings induced are intense, individuals retain their ability to act autonomously, including the ability to refuse consent or end a relationship.

Dolores Umbridge is appointed as the Defense Against the Dark Arts teacher and later becomes Hogwarts' High Inquisitor. Under her dictatorial leadership, the Ministry of Magic imposes strict control over the school, forbidding practical defense lessons and punishing dissent. Despite increasing signs of Lord Voldemort's return, the Ministry refuses to acknowledge this threat. In response, a group of students led by Harry Potter forms Dumbledore's Army (D.A.), a secret organization that teaches practical defense skills, promotes student solidarity, and prepares for the dark forces ahead. Participation is explicitly against school rules and, if discovered, could lead to expulsion or other serious punishment.

Throughout the academic year, students earn or lose House Points based on their behaviour, academic performance, and conduct. Professors and staff award or deduct points at their discretion. Points can be given for acts such as answering questions correctly, showing bravery, or exemplary performance. Points can be deducted for rule-breaking, poor behaviour, or failure to follow instructions. At the end of the year, the House with the highest number of points is awarded the House Cup, a prestigious honour that fosters competition between Houses.

In ice hockey, especially in leagues like the NHL, there's a long-standing unwritten rule and cultural norm that allows players to drop their gloves and engage in fights. While fighting is technically penalized (usually a 5-minute major), it's still tolerated and somewhat ritualized. The "enforcer" (sometimes called the "fighter" or "goon") is a player whose informal role is to fight opponents, protect star players, and uphold team toughness and morale.

Naturalization of athletes refers to the process whereby countries like Singapore, Qatar, and China grant expedited citizenship to foreign-born athletes primarily to compete in international sports competitions. Athletes are often not required to have any cultural, linguistic, or residential connection to the country.

Techno-optimism is a perspective that emphasises a positive outlook on the power of technological progress to solve social, environmental, economic problems.

Rainbow capitalism is the inclusion of LGBTQ+ related products, designs, brands, and sponsorships by large corporations.

The heads of religious organizations such as the Dalai Lama and the Indonesian Ulema Council have heavily pushed for the protection of the environment and the implementation of environmental sustainability. This is based on the common core tenets of religions, that promulgate the idea of "stewardship" over Earth.

The global median age is expected to rise from 24 in 1950 to 29 in 2010 and to 36 in 2050. Increased longevity and decreasing fertility (especially in developed countries) are the primary drivers of population aging. For the purposes of this debate "silver economy" refers to policies to increase the economical participation of older populations (above 50 years of age) by working and consuming.

OPEC+ is an alliance of oil-producing countries that coordinates production policies to influence global oil markets, they own 75% of all oil on the planet. Oil prices have been declining recently due to a combination of factors, including increased supply, weakening demand, and geopolitical uncertainties.

The success of the original Star Wars film (1977) had shifted filmmaking norms from creating dramatic films with a focus on realism, personal stories and irony (e.g. The Godfather, Taxi Driver) to special effects and high-energy motion pictures.

The two major forces fighting the civil war in Sudan are the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) led by the de facto leader Al-Burhan, and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) led by army general Hemedti. Both leaders have significant foreign support in terms of money and arms. Countries like Egypt, Eritrea, Ukraine and Iran support the SAF while the RSF has ties with UAE, Russia, etc.

The civil war in Sudan has been escalated by the power struggle between Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, the leader of the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), and Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, better known as Hemedti, the head of the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF). Pro-democracy see them as war criminals for their role in counter-insurgency in Darfur in 2003 as well as recent escalations in Khartoum. However, these two army generals are seen as 'national leaders' by various marginalized groups in Sudan.

Currently, the Sudanese Army is fighting off the controversial paramilitary opposition force, the RSF, near the country's most lucrative oil refineries. The RSF is attempting to secure control over oil refineries to limit the government's access to the oil industry and its profits. Sudan's biggest source of income is its oil, with countries like China, India, and Japan being its biggest buyers. 

Context: 1) X & Y are budding debaters from the Karachi circuit who are in a happy relationship. They share common aspirations of doing well at major tournaments (WUDC, UADC etc.) and have briefly debated as a team previously. However, this took a significant toll on their relationship since both of them are highly-competitive teammates prone to bouts of stress and anger. Based on this experience, they have teamed up extensively with a different set of teammates which has been successful. For the purposes of this debate, this is likely to be the last year majors are going to be online, post which it is uncertain whether they will be able to access these tournaments. X & Y have spent time preparing for majors with their current teammates. However, in the run up to majors, they realize their current teammates won't be able to make it to the competition. This leaves them with the choice of either debating with each other or settling for an untested partner. Both X & Y are still quite skeptical of the potential fallout teaming up may have on their relationship.

Gross National Happiness (GNH) is a philosophy that guides the government of Bhutan. It includes an index which is used to measure the collective happiness and well-being of a population. The GNH Index includes nine domains: 1) psychological well being 2) health 3) education 4) time use 5) cultural diversity and resilience 6) good governance 7) community vitality 8) ecological diversity and resilience 9) living standards.

For the purpose of this debate, speculative fiction refers to any genre of art that depicts the future of science, technology, religion, culture, etc. In other words, such pieces of art speculate on something supposedly 'nonexistent' within our reality. Within this genre, there is 'apocalyptic speculative fiction', which shows our eventual doom, such as Dune or The Handmaid's Tale. And there is 'optimistic speculative fiction' which shows an 'optimistic' side of our future: we will all be alright. Example: 'The Long Way to a Small, Angry Planet.'

For the purposes of this debate, there are two approaches to writing fantasy and science fiction media. The "re-interpretive approach" directly reinterprets or draws strong parallels to real historical events (e.g. Outlander, The Poppy War, Belisarius). Conversely, the "transformative approach" takes inspiration from real world cultures but builds an otherwise unique world (e.g. Avatar: The Last Airbender, Dune, The Wheel of Time)

For the purpose of this debate, 'looking for a man in finance' trend refers to womxn actively seeking to date rich men who work in lucrative jobs or have generational wealth. That's largely because to have a fun dating life, for example, flying out to Paris for a date. Such womxn prioritize wealth and looks in their partners, ignoring their annoying traits like mansplaining, very capitalist views, or just love for finance.

For the purposes of this debate, glaciers (e.g. ice sheets, icebergs, ice shelves) have suddenly developed sentience, communication and the capacity to consciously control the pace of their melting or stop it entirely. Glaciers cannot stop the process of global warming or its other adverse consequences (e.g. sea levels may rise at a different pace, but this does not affect carbon emissions or the prevalence of bushfires). Nobody else apart from the glacier species is aware that glaciers have developed intelligent thought.

Shareholder activism involves the owners of shares (whether individual or institutional investors) lobbying companies in which they have shares to improve their corporate behaviour. Divestment campaigns involve demanding investors to sell their shares in morally problematic industries.

a) In the U.S., Federal Reserve-driven bailouts involve the Fed (Federal reserve) providing emergency loans, credit facilities, or monetary support to stabilize financial institutions and markets during crises. These actions aim to maintain liquidity and prevent systemic collapse. b) Legislative-driven bailouts occur when Congress passes laws to allocate taxpayer funds for rescuing struggling industries or companies. These bailouts focus on broader economic recovery and often include conditions like repayment or operational reforms.

Rather than the government directly funding social security benefits, the US government established the 'Social Security Trust Fund' which is responsible for paying out social security benefits. By law, the trust fund is funded by a dedicated payroll tax of 12.4%. The trust fund is required to invest surpluses into US Treasury Bonds for the payment of future Social Security benefits. Payroll taxes currently do not cover the full cost of social security, and the trust funds are burning through their cash reserves. The trust funds are expected to be depleted by 2034, at which point payroll taxes will only cover 77% of the cost of social security.

You're Achilles, one of the greatest warriors that Greece has ever seen. Your destiny is written. Your role in winning the Trojan War for your home, Prithia, will be monumental. However, it is certain that you will die a physical death that will render you as a great Greek Hero. But you also have a choice to stay home, and build your life with Patroclus, your male lover. If you choose to stay in Prithia and not fight the war, you will become the first Greek warrior to forge the greatest same-sex love story in Greece.

There exists an experimental drug that can double your IQ. The effects are temporary and will last at least a year, though it's unclear at what point after that they will fade away. Animals used in the testing process did not experience negative side effects. Algernon is a woman with a well below- average IQ whose daily material needs are met. She is given the chance to be the first human to try the drug.

For the purposes of this debate, humanity has achieved communication with a metaphysical being possessing knowledge about the universe's nature. The being sends a message enclosed in an envelope, offering insight into whether historical events and human existence are predetermined or shaped in real-time by individuals. The being is deemed trustworthy, and the information in the message is considered accurate and reliable.

A devoted religious scientist makes a groundbreaking discovery: God undeniably exists. However, this revelation comes with a harrowing truth—creation itself was designed with a singular purpose: to sustain God by feeding on human suffering.

Pro capitalism for purposes of the debate refers to appealing to companies for green policies. This appealing looks like providing corporations with suggestions on how to go green i.e suggesting that they make biodegradable products, suggestions around how to get less greenhouse gas emissions etc.

Science diplomacy describes how scientific exchanges and the cross-border collaboration of scientists or scientific organizations which can solve real world problems and be integrated into the corporate world.

Modern celebrities, including influencers and actors, must actively maintain a personal brand to stay relevant and popular. In today's fast-paced digital world, they craft a consistent image through social media, endorsements, and public interactions, shaping how they are perceived. Without a strong brand, they risk losing relevance, opportunities, and audience engagement.

Personalised Music Summaries like Spotify Wrapped, Apple Replay and more are annual, personalized summaries of your music listening habits on music platforms. They provide insights into your top songs, artists, genres, and total listening time over the past year and this can be shared by you on your social media pages.

In the NBA, a star player is usually the player who is the best offensive player on the team e.g LeBron James on the Lakers. Team success is usually credited to the star player of the team. This is done through media coverage of team wins highlighting the statistics of the star player and/or accolades after winning a championship e.g Finals MVP after winning the NBA finals.

Across Africa, many elites "outsource their ambitions to outsiders." In practice, this refers to African government officials and leaders of civil society organizations choosing to defer to external actors (e.g., major allies and development institutions) to set targets for outcomes in health, education, infrastructure, poverty reduction, responses to climate change, and a number of other issues.

A Job Displacement Tax (JDT) is a tax imposed on corporations that replace human employees with AI-driven tools, automation, or robotics.

Alternative economic indicators are metrics used to assess economic performance that goes beyond traditional measures like Gross Domestic Product (GDP). While GDP focuses on the total value of goods and services produced within a country, alternative indicators often try to capture different aspects of economic well-being, such as social progress, informal economy, distribution of wealth etc. Typical examples of alternative economic Indicators are the: 1. **KFC index** which is a way of measuring the purchasing power parity between two currencies and providing a test of the extent to which market exchange rate results in goods costing the same in different African Countries. 2. **Happy Planet Index** that evaluates life satisfaction, life expectancy, and ecological footprint. 3. **Gender Inequality Index** that evaluates gender disparities in reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market participation. While offering valuable insights, alternative indicators also face challenges related to data availability, standardization, and subjectivity.

There is a significant power struggle in hegemonic rule unfolding in the global economy and geopolitical landscape today. This struggle is primarily between the United States, the long-standing global hegemon, and China, a rising superpower. Additionally, other players like the European Union, India, and Russia are also vying for influence, contributing to a more multipolar dominance. The pursuit of this dominance has been through tariff wars, sanctions export barriers etc. in pursuit of being a hegemon.

Anti-intellectualism is a distrust of intellectuals and experts. It has had a significant political presence in the U.S. and globally, especially in recent years. Anti-intellectualism drives support for rejection of scientific consensus. For example people against vaccines, Food and Drug Administration(FDA) and World Health Organization.

Amor Fati refers to the mindset of embracing everything that happens-good or bad-as necessary and ultimately beneficial for one's growth. It is often associated with Stoic philosophy, particularly involving accepting and even loving one's fate rather than resisting it.

Research indicates that women with high self-worth experience less abuse in relationships, whereas those with low self-worth especially in conservative communities are more vulnerable to abuse due to extreme dominance of men in those communities..

Classical education relies on teacher-led, structured lectures, with minimal student driven discussion or exercises. Subjects are distinct units that are clearly delineated (e.g., math, English, etc) and taught primarily through textbooks. In contrast, progressive education positions teachers as facilitators with a focus on student-led discussion, project-based learning, and experiential learning. Learning is organised thematically around a single topic (e.g., environmentalism, space exploration, etc) and can draw on sources such as news articles, fiction books, documentaries, and academic papers from different areas (science, history, etc.). For the purpose of this debate, secondary schools refer to schools with students from age of 14 to 18.

Confidence culture places a high value on the development and expression of personal confidence. It emphasises the importance of self-assurance, self promotion, and assertiveness, framing these traits as critical to achieving individual goals.

Sankofa is a Ghanaian philosophy that emphasises learning from the past to shape a better future. Embracing this philosophy may involve glorifying traditional practices through popular culture and art, supporting traditional livelihoods and ways of living (e.g., promoting rereruralisation, supporting industries such as breweries, agriculture, and fishing, etc), and teaching indigenous languages in schools.

The July Revolution was a mass popular student-led uprising that ousted Bangladesh's ruling Awami League government and led to the establishment of a politically neutral interim government. The student organisers of the uprising have since occupied important positions within the interim government and founded the National Citizen's Committee (Jatiyo Nagorik Committee), a non- affiliated platform aimed at "building a democractic Bangladesh". Many of the student organisers were previously involved in political organising under the banners of various political parties.

The consumer welfare standard is a legal doctrine that states that business conduct and mergers and acquisitions are only anti-competitive and should be prevented when they harm consumers (e.g., by raising prices, lowering quality, reducing innovation, etc.). In contrast, the citizen welfare standard is a legal doctrine that states business conduct and mergers and acquisitions are to be evaluated on consumer and non-economic outcomes (e.g., privacy, environment, democracy, etc).

La Mano Dura refers to tough-on-crime policies aimed at combating gang violence and organised crime. This approach is characterised by increased police operations and military involvement, harsher penalties for gang-related activities, and lowering the barriers for arrests.

The term "trauma plot" refers to narratives centered on personal traumatic experiences such as violence or abuse, emphasising individual suffering. Examples include novels such as A Little Life, It Ends With Us, Perks of Being a Wallfower, TV series such as Euphoria and BoJack Horseman, and songs such as Billie Eilish's "Bury A Friend".

Companies are increasingly adopting subscription models for selling their physical and digital products instead of solely relying on one-time sales. For example, physical products such as Oura smart ring, Tesla vehicles, and Peloton exercise bikes require monthly fees to unlock some or all features, while digital products such as Adobe Creative Cloud and Microsoft 365 have transitioned from one-time purchase to subscription-based access.

Trumpism is a populist ideology and style of politics that combines elements of nationalism, anti-establishment sentiments, isolationism and being "anti- woke". Politicians that adopt Trumpism are usually more aggressive and abrasive in their public advocacy.

The Holy See is the central governing body of the Catholic Church (including the Pope). The term "two-speed Church" refers to an approach within the Catholic Church in which local or regional churches determine doctrines and practices or adopt reforms at varying paces, depending on their context.

Novo Nordisk is a multinational pharmaceutical company from Denmark which specialises in diabetes medication. It is known for discovering and manufacturing the drug behind Ozempic. Novo Nordisk represents approximately 20% of Denmark's stock market and is the most significant company in the Danish economy.

For the purposes of this debate, the Lost Generation is a group of writers and artists who created their art in and around World War I (e.g. writers such as Ernest Hemingway, Virginia Woolf, F. Scott Fitzgerald; other artists such as Edvard Munch and Otto Dix). The art of the Lost Generation featured prominent themes of disillusionment, defeatism, and uncertainty about the future. The artists often drew from their experience of the war and their troubled personal lives. Their art has had significant influence over later artistic trends and holds a prominent position in many art and literature curriculums globally.

Under a regional recruitment model, professional football clubs only sign players who are either born in their region or spent a significant portion of their life there. For example, Athletic Bilbao in Spain only signs players who were born in or lived significant part of their lives in the Basque region.

Libertarianism is a political philosophy that emphasises individual liberty and autonomy. It seeks to limit state intervention in influencing individual's behaviour, avoid intervening in economic markets, and limit government spending. Paternalism, by contrast, argues that the state has a responsibility to direct society towards desirable goals. It argues that the state should have an active role in guiding individual behaviour, supports market intervention when deemed necessary, and supports comparatively higher government spending. The Christian Democratic Union (CDU) is a historically dominant centre-right party in Germany. The party has both paternalistic and libertarian positions.

Since the 1990s, the assimilationist approach to LGBTQ+ advocacy emphasised that queer identity and relationships are "just like" their heterosexual counterparts, and that therefore LGBTQ+ people should have access to existing social institutions such as marriage and family life. The liberationist approach to LGBTQ+ advocacy would have argued that these institutions are inherently restrictive and should not be central to a person's life.